Satan (meaning "accuser") represents the arch enemy of God in the
Abrahamic religions, who personifies evil and temptation, and is known
as the deceiver that leads humanity astray. The term is often applied to
an angel who fell out of favor with God, seducing humanity into the
ways of sin, and who now rules over the fallen world.
The concept of an anthropomorpized demonic figure (or archetype) is a
salient theme in both ancient and modern religions, which ascribe to an
ongoing cosmic struggle between the forces of good and evil (stark
examples are Manichaeism and Zurvanism). In the religions of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, Satan represents the personalized power of
evil, who, it is said, will ultimately be defeated by the love of God.
In popular culture, the term Satan has many synonyms including the Devil, Lucifer, and the Prince of Darkness, among others.
Etymology
The nominative satan in Hebrew שָׂטָן, referring to an "adversary" or "accuser," as well as the Arabic إبليس (shaitan), derive from a Northwest Semitic root śṭn,
meaning "to be hostile," or "to accuse." In the New Testament, Satan is
a name that refers to a decidedly malevolent entity who possesses
demonic god-like qualities.
Alternative Titles
A number of titles in Judaism and Christianity are equated with Satan. For example, Satan is called Diabolos
(Greek for "accuser" or "obstructor"), which is the source of the
English word "Devil." Satan is also known as Lucifer, based on a
reference to the "Day Star" in Isaiah 14:12-14 which "laid the nations
low." Additionally, he is occasionally called Beelzebub, meaning "Lord
of Flies." Moreover, the titles, "the dragon" and "the old serpent"
(Book of Revelation 12:9 and 20:2) have been identified with Satan, as
have the terms "the prince of this world" (John 12:31 and 14:30), "the
spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience" (Ephesians
2:2), and "the god of this world" (2 Corinthians 4:4). Satan and the
Angel of death and destruction, "Abaddon," are sometimes claimed to be
identical. Satan is also equated with "Ahriman," the Persian "Prince of
Evil." The angel "Leviathan" is described as "that crooked serpent,"
which is also used to describe Satan in Revelation 12:9.
Judaism
In the Hebrew Bible
Satan is primarily understood as an "accuser" or "adversary" in the
Hebrew Bible, and is not necessarily the personification of evil that he
would become in later Abrahamic religions. Within the Hebrew Bible, the
term satan itself is applied both to supernatural entities and
human beings. In actuality, the figure Satan is mentioned quite
infrequently. Where Satan does appear in the Hebrew Bible it is as a
member of God's divine council who watches over human activity, but with
the evil purpose of searching out human beings' sins and then
registering accusations against them. In this way, he serves as
something of a prosecuting attorney for God, presenting his case against
humankind in the heavenly court. This is most evident in the Book of
Job, wherein Satan questions the veracity of humankind's loyalty to God,
putting forth the argument that any given human is only loyal because
God gives her or him prosperity. God agrees to put Satan's theory to the
test, and various misfortunes are visited upon Job as a test of his
faith. It is Satan who actually delivers these ills one-by-one. Despite
this activity, the prologue of the Book of Job makes clear that Satan
has no power of independent volition of his own, and requires the
permission of God to carry out his actions.
In other verses, Satan appears to take his own initiative. In 1
Chronicles 21:1, Satan incites David to commit the sin of taking a
census of Israel. In this passage, it appears that Satan is actually the
entity that enables David to destroy Israel, who acts out accord with
the wishes of God. Five hundred years earlier, this same story portrayed
Yahweh as the one who incited David to take the census (2 Samuel
24:1). The change in the narrative may be due to the fact that the
later story was written after the Hebrews had been in exile in Babylon,
where they were no doubt exposed to Zoroastrian influence.
Zoroastrianism had developed the concept of a volitional evil deity
Angra Mainyu who existed in counterpoint to Spenta Mainyu, the
personification of good. The attribution of an independent will to Satan
may be a Zoroastrian influence, as Angra Mainyu's predilection to evil
exists contradicts the will of Spenta Mainyu and ultimately, the one
supreme and exclusively benevolent Ahura Mazda. Although Satan's
role as the adversary is established in the Hebrew Bible, he had not yet
taken on the demonic character of the personification of evil, which he
would inherit in later Jewish literature, as well as in Christianity
and Islam.
Thus the Hebrew word "Satan" is used in a threefold way to refer to
those who act as adversaries, either as 1) an enemy in times of both war
and peace, 2) as an antagonist who puts obstacles in an individual's
way, as in Numbers 22:22, where the angel of God is described as
opposing Balaam as an adversary, and 3) as an accuser before the
judgment-seat.
Non-Canonical Jewish Literature
Early rabbinic statements in the Mishna and Talmud show that Satan
played a minor role in early Jewish theology. In the course of time,
however, Judaism absorbed many of the now-prevalent concepts of Satan,
most likely from the nearby Persians. Consequently, as a rule, Jewish
writings tend to contain more frequent mentions of Satan and his hosts.
In apocryphal works such as the Jubilees, the Testament of Reuben, and The Book of the Secrets of Enoch,
Satan is considered to be the leader of the fallen angels. As Judaism
evolved, history began to be conceived of in two ages: the present age,
which is marked by Satan's rule, and a more glorious future age which
will usher in the rule of divinity. This will only occur after an
apocalyptic conflict where Satan and the effects of sin, for which he is
responsible, will be overcome. This conception of Satan as the
apocalyptic adversary was no doubt influenced by Zoroastrian
eschatology, as well as by that religion's ethical dualism. It should be
noted that Judaism, as with Christianity, stops short of identifying
Satan as a wholly evil being, so as not to compromise its fundamental
belief in monotheism.
In some Jewish works, rabbis put forth the idea that Satan is the
incarnation of all evil, devoting the entirety of his works to the
destruction of humankind. The Babylonian Talmud, for instance, states
that the Evil Inclination (Yetzer ha-Ra), the Angel of Death and
Satan are all identical. Satan is said to seize upon so little as a
single word which may be prejudicial to man, and in times of danger, he
consistently brings a barrage of accusations.. By the end of the
apocalyptic period (approximately 100 C.E.), Jewish demonology and
folklore had variously connected Satan with darkness, the underworld,
sexual impropriety, and animals such as the goat, the frog or toad, and
the serpent. Some literature, both rabbinical and apocalyptic, asserted
that Satan first wielded his power in the Garden of Eden and this
serpent wryly coerced Eve into eating the forbidden fruit.
Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer characterized Satan as an active agent in the
Fall of Man, and put forward that he was also the father of Cain Other
rabbis have continued this line of thought suggesting that Satan
provided the impetus for other negative events in Jewish history. These
include the offering of Isaac for sacrifice, the release of the animal
destined by Esau for his father, the death of Moses, David's
improprietous sexual relationship with Bathsheba, and the death of the
Persian Queen Vashti, wife of Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes the First). In
addition, the decree to destroy all the Jews obtained by Haman, the
scheming grand vizier of Ahasuerus, was said to have been written on
parchment brought by Satan. The normative Jewish concept, however, was
and remains that Satan cannot be viewed as an independent agent, and
therefore could not have perpetrated the aforementioned events. In the
Babylonian Talmud, Rabbi Levi asserts that "everything Satan does is for
the sake of heaven." Satan's powers are by no means uncontestable; when
the Shofar (Horn) is sounded by Jews on New-Year's Day, Satan is said
to be "confounded". Further, on the Day of Atonement Satan's power is
said to vanish altogether, since the numerical value of the letters of
his name (in the context of gematria and Hebrew numerals) is only 359,
thus allegedly exempting this one day from his influence.
Christianity
In Christianity, the concept of Satan is the amalgamation of both Jewish
and Greek descriptions of evil. In the Christian understanding of the
Hebrew scriptures (Old Testament), Satan is understood as an angel who
rebelled against God. Before his insurrection, Satan was the highest of
all angels, and the "brightest in the sky," referring to his connection
(made in Isaiah 14:12-14) with what was called the "Morning Star" in
Roman astrology, the planet Venus. However, he sought to rule heaven
himself, and his pride kept him from bowing to God as all other angels
did. God promptly cast him out of heaven along with one third of the
angels, who became demons under his charge. The majority of Christians
also believe it was Satan who spoke through the Serpent and seduced Eve
into disobeying God. This connection was first made in the Christian
tradition by Paul in Romans 16:20, though it was largely dispelled by
early church fathers who maintained the traditional Hebrew understanding
that Satan fell after Adam. However, in the 3rd Century B.C.E. Origen
argued that Satan fell before Adam had even been created, and therefore could have appeared in the Garden.
Satan is commonly referred to in the New Testament text by the Greek term Diabolos, from which the word devil
derives. This term means by "accuser" and "obstructor" for the Devil is
described as hating humankind, and intent on impeding it's spiritual
progression by providing temptation to sin. By the 2nd century C.E., the
concept of Satan had inherited the characteristics of many ancient
destructive nature spirits and ghosts, and became the unequivocal
personification of evil. Satan's power was said to extend over the
entire physical world as well as a legion of evil demons. However, he
was also said to lack the omniscience and omnipotence of the one true
God, and therefore relied upon demons to possess human beings and then
torment them. Various New Testament stories provide accounts of
exorcisms Jesus performed upon possessed individuals, such as Mark 16:9.
The New Testament makes the suggestion that Satan does indeed possess
his own will, as it has been argued that Satan entered Judas so that the
Son of Man could be delivered over to Roman officials for his execution
(as in Luke 22:3). However, all throughout the New Testament, the
inevitable fall of Satan's rule is prescribed again and again, as in 2
Peter 2:4, and culminates in Revelation 20:2, 7-10 where Satan is
defeated by Christ, thrown forever into the "lake of fire."
Islam
In Islam, the word Shaitan (شيطان) (deriving from the root šṭn شطن meaning "astray" or "distant") is the equivalent of Satan. The proper name al-Shaitan
"the tempter" is used to refer to Satan specifically when he is the
tempter. Iblis is the personal name of the Shaitan who refused to
prostrate before before Adam in the Qur'anic account of Genesis. The
name Iblis is likely a contraction taken from the Greek "Diabolos."
The Qur'an explains that before the creation of Man, Allah (God) created
the Angels out of light. These angels possessed no free will of their
own. Allah also created the Jinn (genies), endowing them with semi-free
will. Later Allah created Adam, and ordered that all the angels bow to
him. All the angels did, except for a Jinn called Iblis, who was
elevated to be one of the leaders of the Angels. As with Lucifer in the
Christian tradition, Iblis was proud and considered himself to be
superior to Adam who was made of modified clay, while he himself was
made of smokeless fire. For this transgression, God damned Iblis to Hell
for eternity, but gave him respite till the Doomsday at his request. At
this point Iblis swore that he would in the meantime dedicate his
efforts to lead all men astray. Allah replied that there would always be
followers of God, and that the paradise of heaven was available for
them, and those who followed Iblis would go to Hell. Some adherents of
Sufism, the Islamic mystical tradition, actually interpret Iblis' action
against Allah in a positive light, considering his refusal to prostrate
before anything but God as the ultimate display of monotheistic faith.
After their creation, Adam and Eve (Hawwa' حواء,) dwelt in Paradise
(الجنة, Al-Jannah), where Allah forbade them to go near the cursed tree.
As in the Judeo-Christian tradition, al-Shaitan tricked Adam and
Eve into eating from the tree, at which point Allah expelled all of
them from Paradise and placed them upon the Earth. Here Iblis continued
his role as the tempter of mortals, trying to influence as many
descendants of Adam and Eve to sin, thereby collecting them as
companions in Hell. Islamic tradition states that Iblis tempts human
beings by being present in the actual flesh and blood of all of Adam's
children, that is, within the nafs, or the lower principles of
the flesh. Unlike the Christian and Jewish notions of Satan where he
dwells in the underworld realm and related to the jurisdiction of
evildoings, the Islamic tradition conceives of Satan as a part of all
humans, no matter who they are. This may account for the prevalent
associations between Satan and sexuality in the Western world. In order
to tempt mortals, Iblis can assume any shape, including no shape at all.
In one such instance, he took the form of a hatif, one who can be heard but not seen, in order to beguile Ali so he would not wash the body of the Prophet Mohammed.
Bahá'í interpretation
The Bahá'í Faith has attempted to synthesize various texts and precepts
of many religions, as well as the figures within them. The Bahá'í
teachings reveal that the figure of Satan, prevalent in many religions,
is actually a metaphor for the "insistent self," or the self-serving
inclination present within each human being. This insistent self is
often referred to as "the Evil One." Bahá'u'lláh, the founding prophet
of the Bahá'í Faith, once wrote "[w]atch over yourselves, for the Evil
One is lying in wait, ready to entrap you. Gird yourselves against his
wicked devices, and, led by the light of the name of the All-Seeing God,
make your escape from the darkness that surroundeth you." Despite the
fact that Satan is addressed in this way, he is not seen as being an
independent evil power, but instead as the lower nature present within
every human being. Evil, then, is not an entity of itself within the
Bahá'í Faith; rather it is the absence of goodness. Consequently, there
can be no actual evil entities, Satan included.
Gnostic and Other Perspectives
Gnostic sects sometimes interpreted Satan as a positive figure since he
had enabled knowledge to be brought forth, and thusly he was venerated
in worship for this deed (see Gospel of Judas). Some Gnostics also
claimed that the creator God worshiped by Jews and mainstream Christians
had to be Satan, as the highest God could not bring forth a world of
such imperfect nature.
Adherents of Mormonism believe Jesus Christ and the Devil are actually
siblings; Christ is a son of God in the flesh while Satan is His
bodiless spirit son. Jehovah's Witnesses accept the mainstream Christian
belief that Satan was responsible for the temptation in the Garden,
though they believe Satan was at first a real person who was transformed
into "Satan the Devil" upon trying to win Adam and Eve's favor for
himself.
Iconography
Satan has most often been portrayed in Christianity as a horned
creature, red in color, often having the hindquarters or body of hoofed
animals, particularly the goat. These depictions are notable in their
resemblance to the Canaanite gods Baal and Moloch, the Greek deity Pan,
as well as prevalent conceptions of the major male god in Pagan and
Neopagan traditions, such as the "Horned God."
According to some Biblical interpretations, Satan was formerly the Angel
Lucifer who fell from his exalted status for refusing to honor God. As a
result, Satan is often depicted in Christian iconography as having
wings due to his former status as an angel. Before his insurrection,
Satan was the highest of all angels, and the "brightest in the sky,"
referring to his connection (made in Isaiah 14:12-14) with what was
called the "Morning Star" in Roman astrology, the planet Venus. However,
he sought to rule heaven himself, and his pride kept him from bowing to
God as all other angels did.
After this fall from heaven, Satan is said to have tempted Adam and Even
in the Garden of Eden as the Serpentand has since often been
represented as a deceptive serpent hiding in the shadows.
Satan is often described as residing in Hell, the fiery locale where the
wicked are punished after death, however, passages in the New Testament
such as 1 Peter 5:8 suggest that he actually roams the earth, seeking
to sully the lives of living humans by keeping them distant from God.
The Devil has been accredited with the role of bestowing magical powers
upon sorcerers and witches. This idea has prevailed since the Middle
Ages, when complex demonologies were developed within Christian circles.
Satanism
People claiming to worship Satan follow a wide variety of beliefs. These
range from the literal worship of a malevolent spiritual being (also
known as Theistic Satanism); to a kind of subversive ritual performance
stressing the mockery of Christian symbols (most notably the Black
Mass); to the alleged rediscovery of an ancient but misunderstood
religion Setianism (which conflates Satan with the Egyptian god Set); to
an excuse for hedonistic recreation, and the celebration of selfishness
and pleasure.
Perhaps the most prominent spokesman for Satanism in recent years has
been Anton Szandor LaVey, who founded the Church of Satan in 1966. LaVey
wrote The Satanic Bible (1969). He rejected the Black Mass,
criminal behavior, cruelty to animals, and any literal belief in (or
worship of) Satan. Instead he supported a view that identified human
beings as animals and rejected many social structures that inhibit our
instincts.
Other individuals linked to Satan have been Michael Aquino, founder of
the Temple of Set, John D. Allee, founder of First Church of Satan, and
Karla LaVey, daughter of Anton Szandor LaVey who carried on the legacy
of her father by founding the First Satanic Church. Equally renowned
within Satanic circles, though not technically a Satanist, would be
ritual magician Aleister Crowley, who referred to himself as "The Great
Beast 666." Crowley's maxim, "Do as thou wilt shall be the whole
of the law!" captures a common Satanic attitude, and is thought to be
exemplified within the myth of Satan's rebellion.
Much "Satanic" lore does not originate from actual Satanists, but from
Christians. Best-known of these sources would be the medieval folklore
and theology surrounding demons and witches, which culminated in the
witch hunts, where Christians persecuted any behavior that even mildly
resembled their conception of paganism. Many "witches" were killed on
the basis of tenuous accusations.
A more recent example of this witch hunt mentality was the so-called
"Satanic Panic" of the 1980s, which was incited by the memoir Michelle Remembers,
co-written by psychiatrist Lawrence Pazder and Michelle Smith. In this
book, the authors depict Satanism as a vast conspiracy of elites who
have orchestrated an elaborate underground movement focused upon
child-molestation and human sacrifice. Such allegations are largely
unsubstantiated. Most rhetoric produced by the ritual abuse scare of the
1980s is highly polemical, and regularly suggested that Satan actually
appears in proximity to the said crimes in order to receive worship.
Actual Satanic crimes do occur from time to time and may involve
vandalism, cruelty to animals, or grave desecration. While some
high-profile cases of murder or even serial murder have been found to
have Satanic themes, such as those which were perpetrated by the Manson
Family, these appear primarily to be the works of disturbed individuals
rather than those of organized religious groups dedicated to Satan.
Satan in literature and popular culture
The Satan which appears in fiction and popular culture is mostly
influenced by the Christian conceptions of the devil and other evil
forces. Classic works of literature involving the character Satan
include: John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667), William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790–1793), Johann Wolfgang Goethe's Faust (Part 1, 1808; Part 2, 1832), and William Golding's Lord of the Flies (1954). In more recent years, Salman Rushdie's bestselling novel The Satanic Verses
(1988) was widely banned in Middle Eastern countries due to the demonic
attributes bestowed upon certain characters, and even earned its author
a death sentence by the Shi`i Muslim cleric Grand Ayatollah Khomeini
(1900-1989).
The concept of Satan has also been a recurrent figure in numerous films, particularly those in the horror genre, including Rosemary's Baby (1968), The Exorcist (1973), The Omen (1976), and The Amityville Horror (1979). Satan has also appeared in more mainstream films including, O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) and The Passion of the Christ (2004), as well as popular television shows such as South Park.
Another prominent source of "Satanic" imagery is the musical genre of
heavy metal, which has given Satanism the "Hail Satan!" hand-sign. This
hand sign is made when one holds down the middle and ring fingers with
the thumb while keeping the index and pinkie raised to resemble horns.